Geological Methods in Mineral Exploration and Mining, Second Edition

Roger Marjoribanks, "Geological Methods in Mineral Exploration and Mining, Second Edition"
Springer | 2010 | ISBN: 3540743707 | 238 pages | PDF | 5,6 MB

This practical step-by-step guide describes the key geological field techniques needed by today's exploration geologists involved in the search for metallic mineral deposits. The techniques described are fundamental to the collection, storage and presentation of geological data and their use to locate ore. This book explains the various tasks which an exploration geologist is asked to perform in the sequence in which they might be employed in an actual exploration project. Hints and tips are given and the steps are illustrated with numerous examples drawn from real programmes on which the author has worked. Traditional skills are emphasised to show how they can be combined effectively with modern high-technology approaches. For instance this second edition also reviews new techniques geophysics along with GPS applications in exploration and the application of state-of-the-art software to mapping, 3D modelling and resource estimation. Another important facet is the discussion of harm minimisation, especially during the exploration stage, beginning with landowner and community consultation, through exploration planning, leading to sustainable and environmentally responsible mining practices.

Contents
1 Prospecting and the Exploration Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Generating New Projects and Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Some Ways of Generating New Exploration Ideas . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 A Check-List of Negative Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Stages in Prospect Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5.1 Target Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5.2 Target Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.3 Resource Evaluation Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.4 Feasibility Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Maximizing Success in Exploration Programmes . . . . . . . . 7
1.7 Different Types of Exploration Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.8 Exploration Feedbacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.9 Breaking Occam’s Razor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 Geological Mapping in Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.1 WhyMake aMap? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.2 TheNature of aGeologicalMap . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.3 Intelligent Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.4 Choosing the Best Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.1.5 Choosing the Best Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.1.6 Measuring and Recording Structures . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.1.7 Using Satellite Navigation (GPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Mapping Using Reflectance Imagery as a Map Base . . . . . . 25
2.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.2 Acquiring Air Photographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.3 Geological Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.4 Determining Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.5 Stereoscopic Image Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.6 Image Handling Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2.7 Working with Enlarged Air Photographs . . . . . . . . 34

2.2.8 DataTransfer toBaseMap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3 Mapping with a Plane Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.4 Mapping on a Pegged Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.4.1 Requirements of the Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.4.2 Making theMap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.5 Mapping with Tape and Compass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3 Mine Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.2 Mapping in Open Cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.3 Mapping Underground Openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.4 Safety inMines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4 Trenching and Underground Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.1 Preamble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.2 Pitting and Trenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.3 Underground Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.4 Safety and Logistics in Trenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.5 Geological Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.6 Geochemical Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.7 Examples of Successful Exploration Programmes . . . . . . . . 71
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5 Drilling: A General Discussion the Importance of Drilling . . . . . 75
5.1 Types of Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.2 Choosing the Right Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.3 TargetingHoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.4 Drilling on Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6 Rotary Percussion and Auger Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.1 Rotary Percussion Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.1.1 Reverse Circulation Drilling (RC) . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.1.2 Air Core Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.1.3 Rotary Air Blast (RAB) Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.2 Auger Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
7 Diamond Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7.1 Preamble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7.2 SomeDefinitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
7.3 BeforeYouBegin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.4 Setting Up a Diamond Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.5 GeologicalObservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.6 Recognizing and Interpreting Structures in Core . . . . . . . . . 104

7.6.1 Statement of theProblem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7.6.2 Planar Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7.6.3 Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.6.4 Linear Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.6.5 Folds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.6.6 The Scale Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
7.6.7 Vergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
7.7 Measuring and Recording Structures in Core . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.8 Core Logging Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.8.1 Prose Logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.8.2 Graphical Scale Logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.8.3 Analytical Spreadsheet Logging . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.9 Down-HoleSurveying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.9.1 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.9.2 Using Down-Hole Survey Data to Plot Sections andPlans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.10 When Should Core Be Oriented? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.11 Sampling andAssaying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.12 CoreHandling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.13 Core Photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
8 Satellite Imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
8.1 General Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
8.2 How Earth Observation Satellites Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
8.3 Display of Satellite Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
8.4 Geological Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
8.5 Analysis of Reflectance Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
9 Geophysical and Geochemical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.1 General Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.2 Magnetic Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
9.3 GravitySurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
9.4 RadiometricSurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
9.5 Electromagnetic (EM) Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
9.6 ElectricalSurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
9.7 Hybrid Electrical and Magnetic Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
9.8 Advances in Instrumentation and Data Modelling . . . . . . . . 153
9.9 Stream Sediment Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
9.10 SoilSampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
9.11 Heavy Mineral Concentrate (HMC) Sampling . . . . . . . . . . 158
9.12 RockChipSampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
9.13 LateriteSampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

10 Geographical Information Systems and Exploration Databases . . 165
10.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
10.2 The Need for Digital Exploration Databases . . . . . . . . . . . 165
10.3 GISStorage ofMapData . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
10.3.1 Digitised Line Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
10.3.2 Polygon or Vector Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
10.3.3 RasterFormat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
10.4 Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
10.5 Georeferencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
10.5.1 Geographical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
10.5.2 CartesianCoordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
10.5.3 MapDatums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
10.5.4 MapRegistering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
10.6 Manipulation ofGISData . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
10.7 Presentation ofGISData . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Appendix A
Notes on the Use of Graphical Scale Logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
A.1 Column 1(HoleDepth) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
A.2 Column 2(CoreRecovery) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
A.3 Column 3 (Core Quality) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
A.4 Column 4 (SampleNo.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
A.5 Column 5 (AssayResults) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
A.6 Column 6 (Mapping Logs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
A.7 Column 7 (HistogramLogs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
A.8 Column 8 (GeologyNotes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
A.9 Column 9 (SummaryLog) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
A.10 RemarksArea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Appendix B
Oriented Drill Core: Techniques and Procedures . . . . . . . . . . 183
B.1 Techniques for Orienting Drill Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
B.1.1 Non-mechanical Means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
B.1.2 Mechanical Means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
B.2 How to Handle Oriented Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
B.3 HowtoMeasureStructures inOrientedCore . . . . . . . . . . 190
B.3.1 BeforeYouMeasure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
B.3.2 How Many Measurements Are Needed? . . . . . . . . 191
B.3.3 UsingaCoreFrame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
B.3.4 UsingInternalCoreAngles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
B.3.5 Discussion on the Best Measuring Technique . . . . . 201
B.3.6 Plotting Structure Measurements on Drill Section . . . 202
Appendix C
Calculating Strike and Dip from Multiple Diamond Drill Holes . . 205
C.1 TheThreePointProblem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
C.2 SolutionUsingStructureContours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
C.3 Solution Using a Stereonet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
C.4 An Elegant Solution to Determining the Attitude of
Planes in Non-oriented Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Appendix D
How to Use a Stereo Net to Convert Internal Core Angles to Geographic Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
D.1 The Solution for Planar Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
D.2 The Solution for Linear Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Appendix E
Practical Field Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
E.1 Choosing the Right Compass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
E.2 Understanding Your Compass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
E.3 Measuring the Strike and Dip of Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
E.4 Measuring the Trend and Plunge of Lineations . . . . . . . . . 218
Appendix F
Suggested Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Acronyms and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

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William G. Pariseau “Design Analysis in Rock Mechanics"

William G. Pariseau “Design Analysis in Rock Mechanics"
Taylor & Francis | 2006-10-20 | ISBN: 041540357X | 560 pages | PDF | 6,4 MB

 Supplying numerous example problems illustrating design analysis techniques, this text approaches important design issues in rock mechanics from a mechanics of materials foundation. It addresses rock slope stability in surface excavations, shaft and tunnel stability, and entries and pillars. The book also covers three-dimensional caverns with an emphasis of backfill and cable bolting and addresses the geometry and forces of chimney caving. Appendices contain supplementary information about rock, joint, and composite properties, rock mass classification schemes, and useful formulas. A solutions manual is available for the many problems posed at the end of each chapter.

Content
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xv
1 Introduction  (1.06 Mb)
1.1 A practical design objective 3
1.2 Problem solving 4
1.3 Units 5
1.4 Background information 6

• Rock mechanics literature 6
• Mechanical properties of rock 7

1.5 Problems 7

• Basics 7
• Review of stress 8
• Review of strain and elasticity 10

2 Slope stability  (0.5 Mb)
2.1 Translational rock slope failures 18

• Planar block slides 18
• Saftey factor improvement 31
• Wedge failures 38

2.2 Rotational slope failures 60

• Remedial measures 68
• Base failures 70
• Toppling failures 72

2.3 Problems 73

• Planar block slides 73
• Wedge failures 78
• Rotational slides 81
• Dynamics, toppling 85

3 Shafts  (1.9 Mb)
3.1 Single unlined naturally supported shafts 87

• Shaft wall stress concentration 88
• Unlined circular shafts 89
• Unlined elliptical shafts 94
• Unlined rectangular shafts 101
• Shaft wall strengths 113

3.2 Shaft wall support and liners 121

• Shaft wall bolting 122
• Circular shaft liners 130
• Circular steel rings 140

3.3 Multiple naturally supported shafts 142

• Circular shafts in a row 142
• Shaft pillar safety 148
• Two circular shafts of different diameter 153
• Elliptical shafts in a row 155
• Rectangular shafts in a row 158

3.4 Problems 162

• Single, naturally supported shafts 162
• Supported shafts, liners, bolts, rings 169
• Multiple shafts 173

4 Tunnels  (0.5 Mb)
4.1 Naturally supported tunnels 175

• Single tunnels 177
• Single tunnel joints 184
• Multiple tunnels 189

4.2 Tunnel support 194

• Fixed steel sets 194
• Pattern bolting – rock reinforcement 208
• Combination support 212
• Yieldable steel arches 218
• Light segment liner 219

4.3 Problems 220

• Naturally supported tunnels 220
• Supported tunnels 221
• Rock mass classification schemes, RQD 226

5 Entries in stratified ground  (0.5 Mb)
5.1 Review of beam analysis 229

• Basic beam formulas 230
• Important special cases 234

5.2 Softrock entries 243

• Naturally supported roof 243
• Bolted roof 255
• Point anchored roof bolting 255
• Distributed anchorage roof bolting 261
• Roof trusses 264

5.3 Problems 266

• Naturally supported roof 266
• Bolted roof 268

6 Pillars in stratified ground  (0.5 Mb)
6.1 Pillars in a single seam 277

• Tributary area, extraction ratio analysis 277
• Size effect on strength 281

6.2 Pillars in dipping strata 289

• Extraction ratio formulas for pillars in dipping seams 289
• An unconventional Mohr’s circle representation 293
• Generalized Mohr’s circle 298
• Backfill effects on pillar safety factors 300

6.3 Pillars with joints 306

• Flat seam pillars with joints 306
• Dipping seam pillars with joints 310

6.4 Pillars in several seams 315

• Columnized main entry pillars 315
• Staggered chain entry pillars 321

6.5 Barrier pillars 324
6.6 Problems 329

7 Three-dimensional excavations  (0.7 Mb)
7.1 Naturally supported caverns and stopes 346

• Spheroidal excavations 347
• Cubical and brick-shaped excavations 356

7.2 Joints in cavern and stope walls 363
7.3 Tabular excavations 364 7.4 Cavern and stope support 366

• Hardrock mine fill 367
• Cable bolt support 386

7.5 Problems 390

• 3D Caverns 390
• Back fill 391
• Cable bolting 393

8 Subsidence  (1.7 Mb)
8.1 Chimneys 397

• Chimney cave geometry 398
• Caving rock flow 405
• Chimney cave forces 407
• Chimney cave water forces 417
• Support near caving ground 421

8.2 Troughs 430

• Limit of subsidence 431
• Maximum subsidence 433
• Critical width 433
• NCB subsidence profile 435
• Angle of draw and subsidence factor adjustments 440
• NCB strain profile 444
• Surface damage 451
• Multipanel, multiseam subsidence 455
• Alternative approaches to subsidence 461

8.3 Problems 461

• Chimney caving 461
• Combination support 464
• Subsidence troughs 467

Appendix A: Background literature 469
A.1 Books about fundamentals of mechanics 469
A.2 Books about rock mechanics 470
A.3 Books containing rock properties 471
A.4 General sources of rock mechanics information 472

Appendix B: Mechanical properties of intact rock and joints 473
B.1 Elastic moduli of intact rock 474

• Young’s modulus 474
• Poisson’s ratio 477
• Shear modulus 479
• Anisotropy 480

B.2 Strength of intact rock 482

• Tensile strength 482
• Unconfined compressive strength 485
• Compressive strength under confining pressure 495
• Mohr–Coulomb strength 497
• Hoek–Brown strength 499
• Drucker–Prager strength 499
• Nonlinear n-type strength 501
• Compressive strength test data 501

B.3 Joint stiffness 507

• Normal stiffness 508
• Shear stiffness 509

B.4 Joint strength 509
B.5 Simple combinations of intact rock and joints 512

• Continuously jointed rock mass moduli 514
• Discontinuously jointed rock mass moduli 518
• Continuously jointed rock mass strengths 520
• Discontinuously jointed rock mass strengths 523

Appendix C: Rock mass classification schemes for engineering 529
C.1 Rock quality designation 529
C.2 Terzaghi modified scheme 529
C.3 RSR, RMR, and Q 530
C.4 Comparisons of Hp estimates 531

Appendix D: Some useful formulas 533
D.1 Stress 533

• Normal and shear stress on a plane 535
• Principal (normal) stresses 536
• Principal shear stresses 537
• Mohr’s circle 538

D.2 Strain 539

• Strain rosettes 539
• Small strain–displacement relations 541

D.3 Stress–strain relationships, Hooke’s law 541

• Hooke’s law in one dimension – Young’s modulus and shear modulus 541
• Hooke’s law in two-dimensions – plane stress and plane strain 549

References 551
Index 557

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Well Logging for Earth Scientists

Well Logging for Earth Scientists
692 pages | Springer; 2nd edition (May 1, 2008) | ISBN-10: 1402037384 | PDF | 21 Mb

 Well logging lies at the intersection of applied geophysics, petroleum and geotechnical engineering. It has its roots in the tentative electrical measurements in well bores which were made by the Schlumberger brothers some 80 years ago in the earliest days of systematic petroleum exploration. Today, a variety of specialized instruments is used to obtain measurements from the borehole during, as well as after, the drilling process. This readable and authoritative treatment of the physics of these measurements dispels the "black magic" of well log interpretation by relating them, including those obtained by the latest generation of tools, to rock physics. It offers a thorough exposé of the physical basis of borehole geophysical measurements, as well as an introduction to practical petrophysics -- extracting desired properties from well log measurements.

content

1 An Overview of Well Logging (2.9 Mb)

1.1 Introduction

1.2 What is Logging?

1.2.1 What is Wireline Logging?

1.2.2 What is LWD?

1.3 Properties of Reservoir Rocks

1.4 Well Logging: The Narrow View

1.5 Measurement Techniques

1.6 How is Logging Viewed by Others?

2 Introduction toWell Log Interpretation : Finding the Hydrocarbon (1.3 Mb)

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Rudimentary Interpretation Principles

2.3 The Borehole Environment

2.4 Reading a Log

2.5 Examples of Curve Behavior and Log Display

2.6 A Sample Rapid Interpretation

3 Basic Resistivity and Spontaneous Potential (0.5 Mb)

3.1 Introduction

3.2 The Concept of Bulk Resistivity

3.3 Electrical Properties of Rocks and Brines

3.4 Spontaneous Potential

3.5 Log Example of the SP

4 Empiricism: The Cornerstone of Interpretation (1.1 Mb)

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Early Electric Log Interpretation

4.3 Empirical Approaches to Interpretation

4.3.1 Formation Factor

4.3.2 Archie’s Synthesis

4.4 A Note of Caution

4.4.1 The Porosity Exponent, m

4.4.2 The Saturation Exponent, n

4.4.3 Effect of Clay

4.4.4 Alternative Models

4.5 A Review of Electrostatics

4.6 A Thought Experiment for a Logging Application

4.7 Anisotropy

5 Resistivity: Electrode Devices and How They Evolved (2.2 Mb)

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Unfocused Devices

5.2.1 The Short Normal

5.2.2 Estimating the Borehole Size Effect

5.3 Focused Devices

5.3.1 Laterolog Principle

5.3.2 Spherical Focusing

5.3.3 The Dual Laterolog

5.3.4 Dual Laterolog Example

5.4 Further Developments

5.4.1 Reference Electrodes

5.4.2 Thin Beds and Invasion

5.4.3 Array Tools

6 Other Electrode and Toroid Devices (1.1 Mb)

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Microelectrode Devices

6.3 Uses for Rxo  

6.4 Azimuthal Measurements

6.5 Resistivity Measurements While Drilling

6.5.1 Resistivity at the Bit

6.5.2 Ring and Button Measurements

6.5.3 RAB Response

6.5.4 Azimuthal Measurements

6.6 Cased-Hole Resistivity Measurements

7 Resistivity: Induction Devices (1.0 Mb)

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Review of Magnetostatics and Induction

7.2.1 Magnetic Field from a Current Loop

7.2.2 Vertical Magnetic Field from a Small Current Loop

7.2.3 Voltage Induced in a Coil by a Magnetic Field

7.3 The Two-Coil Induction Device

7.4 Geometric Factor for the Two-coil Sonde

7.5 Focusing the Two-coil Sonde

7.6 Skin Effect

7.7 Two-Coil Sonde with Skin Effect

7.8 Multicoil Induction Devices

7.9 Induction or Electrode?

7.10 Induction Log Example

8 Multi-Array and Triaxial Induction Devices (1.0 Mb)

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Phasor Induction

8.2.1 Inverse Filtering

8.3 High Resolution Induction

8.4 Multi-Array Inductions

8.4.1 Multi-Array Devices

8.4.2 Multi-Array Processing

8.4.3 Limitations of Resolution Enhancement

8.4.4 Radial and 2D Inversion

8.4.5 Dipping Beds

8.5 Multicomponent Induction Tools and Anisotropy

8.5.1 Response of Coplanar Coils

8.5.2 Multicomponent Devices

9 Propagation Measurements (1.5 Mb)

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Characterizing Dielectrics

9.2.1 Microscopic Properties

9.2.2 Interfacial Polarization and the Dielectric Properties of Rocks

9.3 Propagation in Conductive Dielectric Materials

9.4 Dielectric Mixing Laws

9.5 The Measurement of Formation Dielectric Properties

9.6 2 MHz Measurements

9.6.1 Derivation of the Field Logs

9.6.2 General Environmental Factors

9.6.3 Vertical and Radial Response

9.6.4 Dip and Anisotropy

9.6.5 Array Propagation Measurements and their Interpretation

10 Basic Nuclear Physics for Logging Applications: Gamma Rays (0.3 Mb)

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Nuclear Radiation

10.3 Radioactive Decay and Statistics

10.4 Radiation Interactions

10.5 Fundamentals of Gamma Ray Interactions

10.6 Attenuation of Gamma Rays

10.7 Gamma Ray Detectors

10.7.1 Gas-Discharge Counters

10.7.2 Scintillation Detectors

10.7.3 Semiconductor Detectors

11 Gamma Ray Devices (0.4 Mb)

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Sources of Natural Radioactivity

11.3 Gamma Ray Devices

11.4 Uses of the Gamma Ray Measurement

11.5 Spectral Gamma Ray Logging

11.5.1 Spectral Stripping

11.6 Developments in Spectral Gamma Ray Logging

11.7 A Note on Depth of Investigation

12 Gamma Ray Scattering and Absorption Measurements (0.9 Mb)

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Density and Gamma Ray Attenuation

12.2.1 Density Measurement Technique

12.2.2 Density Compensation

12.3 Lithology Logging

12.3.1 Photoelectric Absorption and Lithology

12.3.2 Pe Measurement Technique

12.3.3 Interpretation of Pe

12.4 Inversion of Forward Models with Multidetector Tools

12.5 LWD Density Devices

12.6 Environmental Effects

12.7 Estimating Porosity from Density Measurements

12.7.1 Interpretation Parameters

13 Basic Neutron Physics for Logging Applications (0.4 Mb)

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Fundamental Neutron Interactions

13.3 Nuclear Reactions and Neutron Sources

13.4 Useful Bulk Parameters

13.4.1 Macroscopic Cross Sections

13.4.2 Lethargy and Average Energy Loss

13.4.3 Number of Collisions to Slow Down

13.4.4 Characteristic Lengths

13.4.5 Characteristic Times

13.5 Neutron Detectors

14 Neutron Porosity Devices (0.8 Mb)

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Use of Neutron Porosity Devices

14.3 Types of Neutron Tools

14.4 Basis of Measurement

14.5 Historical Measurement Technique

14.6 A Generic Thermal Neutron Tool

14.7 Typical Log Presentation

14.8 Environmental Effects

14.8.1 Introduction to Correction Charts

14.9 Major Perturbations of Neutron Porosity

14.9.1 Lithology Effect

14.9.2 Shale Effect

14.9.3 Gas Effect

14.10 Depth of Investigation

14.11 LWD Neutron Porosity Devices

14.12 Summary

15 Pulsed Neutron Devices and Spectroscopy (0.7 Mb)

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Thermal Neutron Die-Away Logging

15.2.1 Thermal Neutron Capture

15.2.2 Measurement Technique

15.2.3 Instrumentation

15.2.4 Interpretation

15.3 Pulsed Neutron Spectroscopy

15.3.1 Evolution of Measurement Technique

15.4 Pulsed Neutron Porosity

15.5 Spectroscopy

16 Nuclear Magnetic Logging (1.9 Mb)

16.1 Introduction

16.1.1 Nuclear Resonance Magnetometers

16.1.2 Why Nuclear Magnetic Logging?

16.2 A Look at Magnetic Gyroscopes

16.2.1 The Precession of Atomic Magnets

16.2.2 Paramagnetism of Bulk Materials

16.3 Some Details of Nuclear Induction

16.3.1 Longitudinal Relaxation, T1

16.3.2 Rotating Frame

16.3.3 Pulsing

16.3.4 Transverse Relaxation, T2, and Spin Dephasing

16.3.5 Spin Echoes

16.3.6 Relaxation and Diffusion in Magnetic Gradients

16.3.7 Measurement Sensitivity

16.4 NMR Properties of Bulk Fluids

16.4.1 Hydrogen Index

16.4.2 Bulk Relaxation in Water and Hydrocarbons

16.4.3 Viscosity Correlations for Crude Oils

16.5 NMR Relaxation in Porous Media

16.5.1 Surface Interactions

16.5.2 Pore Size Distribution

16.5.3 Diffusion Restriction

16.5.4 Internal Magnetic Gradients

16.6 Operation of a First Generation Nuclear Magnetic Logging Tool

16.7 The NMR Renaissance of “Inside-Out” Devices

16.7.1 A New Approach

16.7.2 Numar/Halliburton MRIL

16.7.3 Schlumberger CMR and Subsequent Developments

16.7.4 LWD Devices

16.8 Applications and Log Examples

16.8.1 Tool Planners

16.8.2 Porosity and Free-Fluid Porosity

16.8.3 Pore Size Distribution and Permeability Estimation

16.8.4 Fluid Typing

16.9 Summary

16.10 Appendix A: Diffusion

17 Introduction to Acoustic Logging (0.6 Mb)

17.1 Introduction to Acoustic Logging

17.2 Short History of Acoustic Measurements in Boreholes

17.3 Applications of Borehole Acoustic Logging

17.4 Review of Elastic Properties

17.5 Wave Propagation

17.6 Rudimentary Acoustic Logging

17.7 Rudimentary Acoustic Interpretation

18 Acoustic Waves in Porous Rocks and Boreholes (0.8 Mb)

18.1 Introduction

18.2 A Review of Laboratory Measurements

18.3 Porolelastic Models of Rocks

18.4 The Promise of Vp/Vs

18.4.1 Lithology

18.4.2 Gas Detection and Quantification

18.4.3 Mechanical Properties

18.4.4 Seismic Applications (AVO)

18.5 Acoustic Waves in Boreholes

18.5.1 Borehole Flexural Waves

18.5.2 Stoneley Waves

19 Acoustic Logging Methods (1.8 Mb)

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Transducers – Transmitters and Receivers

19.3 Traditional Sonic Logging

19.3.1 Some Typical Problems

19.3.2 Long Spacing Sonic

19.4 Evolution of Acoustic Devices

19.4.1 Arrays of Detectors

19.4.2 Dipole Tools

19.4.3 Shear Wave Anisotropy and Crossed Dipole Tools

19.4.4 LWD

19.4.5 Modeling-driven Tool Design

19.5 Acoustic Logging Applications

19.5.1 Formation Fluid Pressure

19.5.2 Mechanical Properties and Fractures

19.5.3 Permeability

19.5.4 Cement Bond Log

19.6 Ultrasonic Devices

19.6.1 Pulse-Echo Imaging

19.6.2 Cement Evaluation

20 High Angle and Horizontal Wells (1.1 Mb)

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Why are HA/HZ Wells Different?

20.3 Measurement Response

20.3.1 Resistivity

20.3.2 Density

20.3.3 Neutron

20.3.4 Other Measurements

20.4 Geosteering

20.4.1 Deep Reading Devices for Geosteering

21 Clay Quantification (1.0 Mb)

21.1 Introduction

21.2 What is Clay/Shale?

21.2.1 Physical Properties of Clays

21.2.2 Total Porosity and Effective Porosity

21.2.3 Shale Distribution

21.2.4 Influence on Logging Measurements

21.3 Shale Determination from Single Measurements

21.3.1 Interpretation of Pe in Shaly Sands

21.3.2 Neutron Response to Shale

21.3.3 Response of _ to Clay Minerals

21.4 Neutron–Density Plots

21.5 Elemental Analysis

21.6 Clay Typing

22 Lithology and Porosity Estimation (1.5 Mb)

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Graphical Approach for Binary Mixtures

22.3 Combining Three Porosity Logs

22.3.1 Lithology Logging: Incorporating Pe

22.3.2 Other Methods

22.4 Numerical Approaches to Lithology Determination

22.4.1 Quantitative Evaluation

22.5 General Evaluation Methods

23 Saturation and Permeability Estimation (1.1 Mb)

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Clean Formations

23.3 Shaly Formations

23.3.1 Early Models

23.3.2 Double Layer Models

23.3.3 Saturation Equations

23.3.4 Laminated Sands

23.4 Carbonates and Heterogeneous Rocks

23.5 Permeability from Logs

23.5.1 Resistivity and Porosity

23.5.2 Petrophysical Models

Download Here : Part 1, Part 2, Part 3, Part 4, Part 5, and Part 6